CBSE Class 11 History: The Central Islamic Lands - NCERT Solutions

In the early seventh century, the Arabs were largely divided into tribes, many of which were nomadic, known as Bedouins. These tribes were typically led by a chief selected based on lineage, personal courage, wisdom, and generosity. Each tribe often worshipped its own idol, representing a specific god or goddess, housed in a shrine. The Bedouins followed a migratory lifestyle, moving between dry and green areas (oases) in the desert to find essential resources like dates, fodder, and water for their camels. While nomadic life was common, some Arabs settled in cities, engaging in trade or agriculture.

The term 'Abbasid revolution' refers to a significant political upheaval that occurred in 750 CE. This movement, known as dawa, was well-organized and successfully overthrew the Umayyad dynasty, which had been founded by Muawiya in 661 CE. The Umayyads had attempted to centralize the Muslim polity and suppress dissent. The Abbasids, who were descendants of Abbas, the Prophet's uncle, came to power by portraying the Umayyad regime as corrupt and promising a restoration of the original Islamic principles. The revolution originated in Khurasan, located in eastern Iran, and fundamentally altered the political structure and culture of the Islamic world.

The states established by Arabs, Iranians, and Turks exhibited a cosmopolitan character through various means:

1. Arab States: The Arabs recognized Jews and Christians as protected subjects (dhimmis). They were granted a significant degree of autonomy in managing their own religious and communal affairs, which allowed for the continuation of diverse cultural practices within the state.
2. Turkish States: For instance, the Ghaznavid sultanates, a Turkish state, recruited soldiers from India. One notable general under Mahmud was an Indian named Tilak, demonstrating the integration of non-Turks into the military structure.
3. Iranian States (under Abbasids): The Abbasids, while of Arab origin, reorganized the army and bureaucracy on a non-tribal basis. This restructuring aimed to ensure broader participation from regions like Iraq and Khurasan, incorporating diverse populations into the administrative and military systems.

The Crusades had several lasting effects on both Europe and Asia, particularly concerning Christian-Muslim relations and trade:

• Inter-religious Relations: The conflicts left behind bitter memories, causing Muslim states to adopt a harsher stance towards their Christian subjects. Religious tensions also intensified in regions where Muslims, Jews, and Christians lived together.
• Trade: Despite the restoration of Muslim power, the influence of Italian mercantile communities from cities like Pisa, Genoa, and Venice in the trade between the East and West continued to grow and persist.

Islamic architectural forms, particularly evident in religious buildings like mosques, shrines, and tombs across vast regions from Spain to Central Asia, shared basic design elements such as arches, domes, and minarets, along with open courtyards (sahn). Mosques typically featured a roof supported by pillars and had specific halls for Friday noon sermons. This architectural style was also applied to secular structures like caravanserais, hospitals, and palaces. Notable examples include the 'desert palaces' built by the Umayyads, such as Khirbat al-Mafjar and Qusayr Amra, which served as luxurious residences and recreational retreats.

In contrast, Roman architecture is known for different forms, often characterized by monumental structures like amphitheatres, aqueducts, basilicas, and triumphal arches, utilizing elements like concrete, vaults, and domes on a grand scale, often emphasizing engineering prowess and civic function rather than the spiritual and communal needs central to Islamic religious architecture.